The proof, era by era

1. 1
   Satya, Treta and Dvapara Yugas, to 3102 BCE (traditional reckoning)

   Vedic Rishis and the Itihasa

   • Fire altars of Kalibangan Excavation · Mature Harappan, c. 2500–2000 BCE; excavated 1961–69
   • The submerged structures off Dwarka Excavation · Explored from 1983; dated by S. R. Rao to c. 15th century BCE
   • Boğazköy treaty naming Mitra, Varuna, Indra and the Nasatyas Inscription · c. 1380 BCE
   • The Sulba Sutras Science · Vedic, part of the Kalpa Vedanga
   • Aihole inscription of Ravikirti Inscription · 634–635 CE (Shaka 556; Kali 3735)
   • Rigveda manuscripts at BORI, Pune Manuscript · Copied c. 1464–1800s CE; on the UNESCO register since 2007
2. 2
   c. 7000–1300 BCE

   The Sindhu–Sarasvati Civilisation

   • Rock shelters of Bhimbetka Excavation · Paintings from the Mesolithic to the medieval period; found 1957
   • The drilled teeth of Mehrgarh Excavation · c. 7000–5500 BCE; published 2006
   • Bhirrana excavations Excavation · Earliest layers claimed c. 7500–6000 BCE (contested); excavated 2003–06
   • The ploughed field at Kalibangan Excavation · Early Harappan, c. 2800 BCE; excavated 1960s
   • The reservoirs of Dholavira Excavation · c. 3000–1500 BCE; excavated 1990–2005
   • Harappa excavations Excavation · c. 3300–1900 BCE; excavated from 1921
   • The Rakhigarhi genome Genetics · Burial c. 2800–2300 BCE; genome published 2019
   • Mohenjo-daro excavations Excavation · c. 2600–1900 BCE; excavated from 1922
   • The Pashupati seal Excavation · c. 2500–2000 BCE; found 1928–29
   • Fire altars of Kalibangan Excavation · Mature Harappan, c. 2500–2000 BCE; excavated 1961–69
   • The dock at Lothal Excavation · c. 2400–1900 BCE; excavated 1955–60
   • The Dholavira signboard Excavation · Late 3rd millennium BCE; found in the 1990s
   • Ancient DNA of South and Central Asia (Narasimhan et al. 2019) Genetics · Samples from the last 8,000 years; published 2019
   • Sinauli chariot burials Excavation · c. 2000–1800 BCE (ASI estimate); excavated 2018
3. 3
   c. 1300–321 BCE

   Janapadas and the Rise of Magadha

   • Ancient DNA of South and Central Asia (Narasimhan et al. 2019) Genetics · Samples from the last 8,000 years; published 2019
   • Hastinapura excavation Excavation · Excavated 1950–52 by B. B. Lal
   • Adichanallur urn burials Excavation · Iron Age, early 1st millennium BCE (dates still argued); dug 1876 onwards
   • Keezhadi excavations Excavation · Earliest sample dated 580 BCE (2019 report); excavated 2015 onwards
   • Behistun inscription of Darius I Inscription · c. 520 BCE
   • Punch-marked karshapanas Coin · c. 6th–2nd century BCE
   • Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela Inscription · c. 2nd–1st century BCE
4. 4
   321–185 BCE

   The Maurya Empire

   • Excavations at Pataliputra Excavation · Mauryan, 4th–3rd century BCE; excavated 1912–15 and 1951–55
   • The Arthashastra manuscript found in 1905 Manuscript · Text of Kautilya, minister of Chandragupta Maurya; this Grantha copy c. 16th century, identified 1905
   • Kandahar bilingual edict of Ashoka Inscription · c. 258 BCE (ten years after Ashoka’s abhisheka)
   • Edicts of Ashoka Inscription · c. 268–232 BCE
   • Kalinga edicts at Dhauli and Jaugada Inscription · c. 3rd century BCE
   • The Lion Capital of Sarnath Monument · c. 250 BCE; found 1905
   • Didarganj Yakshi Monument · Mauryan by most scholars, c. 3rd century BCE; some date it later
   • Sohgaura copper plate Inscription · Maurya period, c. 3rd century BCE
   • Junagadh rock inscription of Rudradaman Inscription · 150 CE (Shaka year 72)
5. 5
   185 BCE – 320 CE

   Shungas, Satavahanas, Kharavela and the Sangam Kingdoms

   • Wootz steel Science · Made in South India from the late centuries BCE into the 19th century
   • Agathocles’ coins of Balarama and Krishna Coin · c. 190–180 BCE
   • Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela Inscription · c. 2nd–1st century BCE
   • Heliodorus pillar, Besnagar Inscription · c. 113 BCE
   • Naneghat inscription of Queen Naganika Inscription · c. 1st century BCE
   • Ghosundi and Hathibada inscriptions Inscription · c. 1st century BCE
   • Ayodhya inscription of Dhanadeva Inscription · c. 1st century BCE
   • Arikamedu excavations Excavation · c. 2nd century BCE–2nd century CE; excavated 1945 onwards
   • Mora well inscription Inscription · Early 1st century CE
   • Rabatak inscription of Kanishka Inscription · Year 1 of Kanishka, c. 127 CE
   • Junagadh rock inscription of Rudradaman Inscription · 150 CE (Shaka year 72)
   • Nasik prashasti of Gautami Balashri Inscription · c. 2nd century CE (19th year of Vasishthiputra Pulumavi)
   • Kushana coins of Shiva (Oesho) Coin · c. 1st–3rd century CE
   • The Spitzer manuscript Manuscript · c. 2nd century CE (radiocarbon 80–230 CE)
   • Satavahana ship coins Coin · Late 2nd century CE
   • Yaudheya coins of Kartikeya Coin · c. 2nd century BCE–4th century CE
   • Võ Cạnh inscription Inscription · c. 2nd–3rd century CE
6. 6
   320–550 CE

   The Gupta Age

   • The Chandragupta–Kumaradevi coin Coin · 4th century CE
   • Allahabad pillar prashasti of Samudragupta Inscription · c. 350–375 CE
   • Samudragupta’s Ashvamedha coin Coin · c. 350–375 CE
   • Gupta gold dinars Coin · c. 320–550 CE
   • Iron pillar of Delhi Science · c. 400 CE
   • Yupa inscriptions of Mulavarman, Kutai Inscription · c. 400 CE
   • Udayagiri cave inscriptions of Chandragupta II Inscription · 401 CE (Gupta year 82)
   • Halmidi inscription Inscription · c. 450 CE
   • Ciaruteun inscription of Purnavarman Inscription · c. 5th century CE
   • Bhitari pillar of Skandagupta Inscription · c. 455–467 CE
   • Junagadh inscription of Skandagupta Inscription · 455–457 CE (Gupta years 136–138)
   • Talagunda pillar inscription Inscription · c. 455–470 CE
   • Mandsaur inscription of the silk-weavers’ guild Inscription · 436 and 473 CE (Malava years 493 and 529)
   • The Aryabhatiya Science · 499 CE (Kali 3600)
   • Eran inscriptions Inscription · 4th–6th century CE
   • Mandasor victory pillars of Yashodharman Inscription · c. 532 CE
   • The Bower manuscript Manuscript · c. 6th century CE; acquired 1890
7. 7
   c. 550–1000 CE

   The Age of Great Kingdoms

   • The Gilgit manuscripts Manuscript · c. 5th–7th century CE; found 1931
   • Banskhera copper plate of Harsha Inscription · 628 CE (Harsha year 22)
   • Brahmagupta’s Brahmasphutasiddhanta Science · 628 CE
   • Kudumiyanmalai music inscription Inscription · c. 7th century CE
   • Aihole inscription of Ravikirti Inscription · 634–635 CE (Shaka 556; Kali 3735)
   • Nidhanpur copper plates of Bhaskaravarman Inscription · 7th century CE
   • Kedukan Bukit inscription Inscription · 683 CE (Shaka 605)
   • Canggal inscription of Sanjaya Inscription · 732 CE (Shaka 654)
   • Navsari plates of Avanijanashraya Pulakeshin Inscription · 739 CE (Kalachuri year 490)
   • The Bakhshali manuscript Manuscript · Radiocarbon dates between the 3rd and 10th centuries CE (2017; the dating is debated)
   • Nalanda copper plate of Devapala Inscription · 9th century CE, reign of Devapala
   • Zero at the Chaturbhuj temple, Gwalior Inscription · 876 CE (Vikrama Samvat 933)
   • Manuscripts of the Sushruta Samhita Manuscript · Oldest dated copy 878 CE
   • Rajatarangini of Kalhana Chronicle · 1148–1149 CE
8. 8
   c. 850–1310 CE

   Cholas and the Southern Seas

   • Uttaramerur inscriptions on village elections Inscription · 919 and 921 CE (Parantaka I, years 12 and 14)
   • Chola coins Coin · c. 10th–12th century CE
   • Larger Leiden copper plates Inscription · c. 1006 CE (21st year of Rajaraja I), issued under Rajendra I
   • Inscriptions of the Brihadeeswara temple, Thanjavur Inscription · c. 1010–1014 CE (Rajaraja I)
   • Tiruvalangadu copper plates of Rajendra Chola Inscription · c. 1018 CE (6th year of Rajendra I)
   • Sdok Kak Thom inscription Inscription · 1052 CE (Shaka 974)
   • Lobu Tua Tamil inscription, Barus Inscription · 1088 CE (Shaka 1010)
   • Khazain-ul-Futuh of Amir Khusrau Chronicle · 1311–12 CE
9. 9
   636–1206 CE

   The long resistance: Sindh to Tarain

   • Navsari plates of Avanijanashraya Pulakeshin Inscription · 739 CE (Kalachuri year 490)
   • Gwalior prashasti of Mihira Bhoja Inscription · 9th century CE, reign of Mihira Bhoja (c. 836–885)
   • Hindu Shahi bull-and-horseman coins Coin · c. 9th–10th century CE
   • Tarikh-i-Yamini of al-Utbi Chronicle · c. 1020 CE
   • Kitab al-Hind of Al-Biruni Chronicle · c. 1030 CE
   • Rajatarangini of Kalhana Chronicle · 1148–1149 CE
   • Harakeli Nataka slabs, Ajmer Inscription · 1153 CE (Vikrama Samvat 1210)
   • Prabhas Patan inscription of Bhava Brihaspati Inscription · 1169 CE (Valabhi Samvat 850)
   • Prithviraja Vijaya of Jayanaka Chronicle · c. 1191–1192 CE
   • The Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque inscription Inscription · AH 587 (1191–92 CE)
   • Kanai Barasi rock inscription Inscription · Shaka 1127 (1205/06 CE)
   • Chachnama Chronicle · c. 1216 CE (Persian version)
10. 10
    1206–1526 CE

    Sultanates, Vijayanagara and the kingdoms that stood

    • Madala Panji of the Jagannath temple Chronicle · Palm-leaf chronicle kept over centuries
    • Rajatarangini of Kalhana Chronicle · 1148–1149 CE
    • Tabaqat-i-Nasiri of Minhaj-i-Siraj Chronicle · 1259–1260 CE
    • Vilasa grant of Prolaya Nayaka Inscription · c. 1330 CE
    • Madhura Vijayam of Gangadevi Chronicle · Late 14th century; Kampana’s campaign c. 1371
    • The Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics Science · c. 1350–1650 CE
    • Kanhadade Prabandha of Padmanabha Chronicle · 1455 CE
    • Kirti-stambha prashasti of the Vijay Stambh, Chittor Inscription · c. 1460 CE
    • Rigveda manuscripts at BORI, Pune Manuscript · Copied c. 1464–1800s CE; on the UNESCO register since 2007
    • Krishnadevaraya’s inscription at the Krishna temple, Hampi Inscription · 1513 CE
    • Vijayanagara gold varaha Coin · 14th–17th century CE
11. 11
    1526–1707 CE

    The Mughal era and the resistance

    • Ahom Buranjis Chronicle · Kept from the 13th to the 19th century
    • Persian inscriptions of the Babri mosque Inscription · AH 935 (1528–29 CE)
    • Baburnama Chronicle · Memoirs to 1529 CE
    • Fathnama-i-Chittor of Akbar Chronicle · 1568 CE
    • Ain-i-Akbari of Abul Fazl Chronicle · Completed c. 1598 CE
    • Tarikh-i-Firishta Chronicle · c. 1606–1611 CE
    • Badshahnama of Abdul Hamid Lahori Chronicle · Covers 1628–1648; written in Shah Jahan’s reign
    • The Mewar Ramayana Manuscript · 1649–1653 CE
    • Shivaji’s Shivrai hon Coin · Struck from 1674 CE
    • Sabhasad Bakhar Chronicle · 1697 CE
    • Maasir-i-Alamgiri Chronicle · 1710 CE
12. 12
    1707–1818 CE

    Maratha ascendancy and the Sikh empire

    • Jantar Mantar observatories Science · Delhi 1724; Jaipur c. 1728–34
    • Tipu Sultan’s letters to the Sringeri math Manuscript · 1790s CE
    • The Peshwa Daftar Manuscript · 18th century to 1818
    • Malabar Manual of William Logan Chronicle · 1887 CE
13. 13
    1757–1858 CE

    Company rule and the war of 1857

    • Edicts of Ashoka Inscription · c. 268–232 BCE
    • The Mackenzie manuscripts Manuscript · Collected c. 1796–1821
    • Macaulay’s Minute on Education Chronicle · 2 February 1835
    • Queen Victoria’s Proclamation of 1858 Chronicle · 1 November 1858
14. 14
    1858–1947 CE

    Renaissance and the struggle for Swaraj

    • Mohenjo-daro excavations Excavation · c. 2600–1900 BCE; excavated from 1922
    • The Arthashastra manuscript found in 1905 Manuscript · Text of Kautilya, minister of Chandragupta Maurya; this Grantha copy c. 16th century, identified 1905
    • Report of the Hunter Committee Chronicle · 1920 CE
    • Temple Entry Proclamation of Travancore Chronicle · 12 November 1936
15. 15
    1947 CE–today

    Independent Bharat

    • The hand-written Constitution of India Manuscript · Signed 24 January 1950
    • ASI excavation at Ayodhya, 2003 Excavation · March–August 2003; report submitted 22 August 2003
    • Supreme Court judgment on Ayodhya, 2019 Chronicle · 9 November 2019
    • ASI scientific survey of the Gyanvapi complex Excavation · Survey 2023; report made public January 2024

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